Academy, private school, Confucius Institute: analyzing heritage art of educational architectural paintings via event coding

Academy architecture has formed a complex line of development dominated by the continuation of the tomb ritual system and driven successively by philosophical dissemination and Confucian politics

Based on Bray’s⁴⁵ analysis, kinship ties provide the foundational framework for the social structure of traditional Chinese clan relationships, with ancestor worship permeating various aspects such as urban planning, architectural development, artistic creation, and folk culture. As cultural carriers of clan traditions, the architectural development of ancestral halls and academies exhibits both similarities and interconnections. Li et al.¹² have outlined a developmental trajectory for ancestral halls centered around the maintenance of kinship-based political structures. Due to the expanded role of social education, this study argues that academies not only continue the cultural legacy of the ancient tomb ritual system but also evolve a distinct path characterized by the “integration of politics and education (政教并置).” This unique architectural culture is prominently reflected in aspects such as function, layout, and decoration. Based on chronological records, Tables 3–4 present 34 significant events from 221 BCE to the early 21st century that influenced the development of academy architecture, aiming to explore the cultural dynamics underlying their rituality and educational nature.

Table 3 highlights 18 events before the Ming dynasty (before 1368), illustrating a dual developmental trajectory for academy architecture, primarily driven by the continuation of the tomb ritual system, supplemented by the dissemination of philosophical thought. During the Qin dynasty (221–207 BCE), urban planning typically emphasized feng shui, site selection, and layout, while architectural details focused on uniformity and hierarchy to signify imperial authority and the etiquette system between ruler and subjects⁴⁶. For instance, in large clan structures during the Han dynasty (202 BCE-220 CE), the “ancestral temple on the left, school on the right” (左庙右学) architectural layout emerged, with ritual and educational spaces located on the left and right, respectively⁴⁷. This arrangement is similar to the symmetrical layout of imperial tombs, characterized by a central axis with the main hall at the front and burial chamber at the rear, a design also found in the contemporary Chen clan academy¹⁷. As the first state-sponsored purely academic institution in China, the Tang dynasty’s (618–907) Lizheng Academy (丽正书院) lacked the ritual spaces and Confucius portraits found in private institutions like the Wenweng Shishi Academy (文翁石室书院)⁴⁸, functioning more like a library rather than a center for cultural dissemination⁴⁹. With changes in name, refinement of official duties, institutional reforms, and the development of academic activities, this academy gradually acquired a cultural dissemination role, though limited to topics related to official politics⁵⁰.

The emergence of private schools (state-funded and privately managed) during the Five Dynasties and Ten Kingdoms period (907-979) marked the expansion of educational functions in academies⁵¹ and the early development of popular education, driven by the implementation of the system of educational land grants (学田制). At this time, many academies served both the elite and clans, integrating functions such as rituals, book collections, lodging, and lectures. Although schools based on temple expansions (scholastic temples) also began to appear, their degree of functional integration (still primarily focused on ritual) was less advanced than that of academies⁵². Although military conflicts in the early Northern Song period hindered the development of academy architecture⁵³, the subsequent promotion of Confucianism⁵⁴, local adoption of the system of educational land grants⁵⁵, and the creation of Confucius sculptures and wall paintings^48,54 strengthened the popularization, ethicality, and rituality of academy education. After the Southern Song period (after 1127), academic architecture took on a more political character. With Cheng-Zhu Neo-Confucianism (程朱理学) gaining prominence as the official ideology⁵⁶, academy spaces became material carriers for reinforcing social order through the dissemination of thought, including the establishment of etiquette, school regulations, and curriculum design^57,58,59,60. Meanwhile, Neo-Confucianism promoted by scholars like Zhu Xi faced political suppression due to conflicts with official policies^61,62, which restricted the development of academic architecture.

Table 4 presents 16 key events from the Ming to the Qing dynasties (1368-1911), highlighting the multiple dimensions of academy development in politics, educational nature, and functionality. In terms of politics, the political influence of public opinion at Donglin Academy (东林书院) posed a threat to imperial authority⁵⁷, leading the government to shift from supporting educational policies in the late Ming period (1573–1644)⁶³ to suppressing academy development⁵⁷. This trend continued into the early Qing period^50,64. During the mid-Qing period, the integration of Cheng-Zhu Neo-Confucianism (程朱理学) with the imperial examination system (科举制)⁶⁵ marked the maturity of an educational system characterized by the “integration of politics and education (政教并置),” wherein academy education became a tool for legitimizing imperial rule. Regarding educational nature, in the early Ming dynasty, walls and stone tablets at Confucius temples and academies were carved with art related to poetry and rituals (诗书礼仪)⁶⁶, and lecture halls and meeting spaces featured statues of renowned scholars for veneration⁶⁷. Later, the Yangming School of Mind (阳明心学) criticized Cheng-Zhu Neo-Confucianism and promoted idealism, infusing the academy’s ancestral worship culture with religious elements⁶⁸. In the early 19th century, the government suppressed the spread of foreign religious culture, which also restricted academic activities at academies⁶⁹. Nonetheless, the Opium War forced China to open up and encounter diverse cultural influences, leading to the emergence of “ecclesiastical academies (教会书院)” influenced by religious thought.

The Taiping Rebellion (太平天国运动) challenged the gender inequality in Confucian education, advocating for equal educational rights for men and women⁷⁰. Consequently, under social and political pressure, the government undertook modern reforms of the academic education system. For example, during the Hundred Days’ Reform (戊戌变法) in the early 20th century⁷¹, it was proposed that modern educational spaces should no longer be referred to as “academies” but as “new-style schools (新式学堂),” symbolizing a critical reassessment of traditional moral principles. The subsequent abolition of the imperial examination system, which had lasted over 1300 years⁷², signified the collapse of the academy-based education system and the transformation of academy architecture into a cultural symbol. Regarding functionality, although academy architecture during the Ming and Qing dynasties generally adhered to the layout of “ancestral worship on the left, study room on the right,” as seen in Wangsong Academy (万松书院)⁵⁷, some buildings underwent innovations. For instance, Bailudong Academy (白鹿洞书院) featured a central layout for worship, diverging from traditional patterns by concentrating both worship and study spaces in the Minglun Hall (明伦堂)⁶⁷. This overlapping functional layout also introduced vertical spatial innovations, such as at Duanxi Academy (端溪书院), where the lecture hall and library were located on different floors within the central area. Compared to the typically austere study spaces of the past, this academy’s ritual spaces incorporated more elements of entertainment and leisure⁶³.

During the event coding process, this study draws upon the works of Deng^73,74 and Hu and Li⁷⁵ to select 34 historical events that significantly influenced the architectural evolution of academies for analysis. Although the formal educational system in China began during the Song Dynasty⁷⁶, the earliest Lizheng Academy (丽正书院) can be traced back to the reign of Emperor Xuanzong of the Tang Dynasty⁴⁹. Predecessors of academies, such as rural schools and private schools, existed even earlier⁷⁷. Given the extensive historical depth of academy culture, the temporal scope of this study extends back to the Qin Dynasty in 2013 BCE, ensuring comprehensive coverage of historical contexts and depth. The selected events encompass changes in the academy system, political and economic transformations, military factors, architectural functions, and ritual culture, thereby reflecting the multifaceted impact of these events on the development of academy architecture and decorative arts.

The detailed attributes of the 34 events—including time, location, participants, actions, and societal impacts—were systematically recorded. Based on event properties (Economy, Politics, Military, Ritual System, Philosophy) and their corresponding societal impacts (Functionality, Layout, Decoration, Confucian Status, Hierarchy), the events listed in Tables 3 and 4 are categorized into five distinct types. To prevent research bias resulting from unidimensional coding, a multidimensional coding strategy was adopted. Each event was assigned to various coding levels according to its social impact, thereby ensuring scientific rigor in the construction of the relational hermeneutic model²⁵. This multidimensional analytical approach allows the study to distinguish between the primary and secondary trajectories in the development of academy culture. Tables 5–6 present the classification of event attribute layers and their corresponding influencing layers on academy development, while Figs. 5–6 illustrate the proportional distribution of each coding layer.

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The different colored bars mark the number of each event attribute grouping. Of these, the highest percentage of events are those related to the ritual system, and those that affect Confucian status. The white dots are the median of the bars, while the dotted lines reflect the variation in the data.

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The different colored bars mark the number of each event attribute grouping. Of these, the highest percentage of events are related to politics, and those that affect Confucian status. The white dots are the median of the bars, while the dotted lines reflect the variation in the data.

Drawing on the event classification methodologies of Wang et al.⁷⁸, Zhang et al.¹⁷, Li et al.¹², and Liu et al.⁷⁹, the coding logic and standards for attribute layers and influencing layers in Tables 5–6 are defined as follows: 1) Attribute layers are classified based on the institutional affiliation and structural dimension of each event; 2) Influencing layers are evaluated according to the spatial, cognitive, and symbolic transformations triggered by the event; 3) Events are mapped across different logical layers to construct a structurally nested network model. Political events are identified based on dynastic transitions, administrative reforms, changes in local governance, and shifts in educational policy—such as modifications to the imperial examination system or policies on the establishment or abolition of academies. Economic events include financial support, academy fundraising, gentry patronage, and reforms to land rent or taxation systems that affect the operational mechanisms of educational spaces. Military events encompass wars, conscription, and frontier restructuring, which often result in the destruction, relocation, or functional transformation of academies. Events categorized under the ritual system include alterations to sacrificial practices, ancestral rites, institutional codes, and transformations of ancestral halls, all of which influence ritual spatial configurations within academies. Philosophical events involve the rise of Neo-Confucianism, dissemination of philosophical doctrines, ideological constraints, and purges of heterodox thought, reflecting broader cultural and intellectual backgrounds. Functional influences are assessed by determining whether an event led to the expansion, transformation, or dissolution of the academy’s core functions (e.g., shifting from lecturing to archival purposes). Layout influences are evaluated based on changes in courtyard structure, entrance orientation, axial alignment, or ceremonial pathways. Decorative influences include alterations to mural themes, color schemes, and figurative representations. The influence on Confucian status pertains to whether an event enhanced or diminished the discursive and symbolic role of Confucianism within state governance or local systems. Hierarchical influence considers whether an event restructured symbolic spatial order (e.g., the spatial relationship between teachers and students or principal and subordinate zones within buildings).

Figure 7 presents the event relation model, which illustrates the causality and direct influencing relations among events. The criteria for determining causality are as follows^80,81: 1) Event A serves as a necessary precondition for Event B, and the occurrence of Event A leads directly to the emergence of Event B; 2) Events A and B are sequentially ordered and logically connected, with the former providing a direct historical context or impetus for the latter; 3) Event A triggers a chain reaction that ultimately results in Event B, with both events exhibiting a significant correlation in terms of scope or outcome. The criteria for determining direct influencing relations include: 1) Event A exerts a substantive influence on Event B within a specific spatial or temporal scope; 2) Although not strictly causal, the interaction between Events A and B demonstrably affects the social, economic, or political structure of the city; 3) Event A introduces a turning point or new factor that gives Event B a distinct and innovative trajectory. This study focuses on explicating the aforementioned causal and direct influencing relations to provide an in-depth analysis of the architectural and cultural origins of the academy.

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When a large number of events are clustered in a particular classification, it indicates the general trend of event development. The red line of events constitutes the main vein of event development, while the blue color represents the feeder vein.

Figures 8–9 present the development trajectory model (DTM) based on attribute layers and influencing layers, respectively. These models visualize the major developmental trajectories through the clustering of events, thereby illustrating how academy architecture was shaped by multifaceted factors across different historical periods. When events aggregate within a specific classification, this signifies a general trend in development. Events marked in red denote the primary trajectory, while those in blue represent secondary branches.

The alternative text for this image may have been generated using AI.

When a large number of events are clustered in a particular classification, it indicates the general trend of event development. The red line of events constitutes the main vein of event development, while the blue color represents the feeder vein.

The alternative text for this image may have been generated using AI.

When a large number of events are clustered in a particular classification, it indicates the general trend of event development. The red line of events constitutes the main vein of event development, while the blue color represents the feeder vein.

Figures 7–9 illustrates the relationships between events. The sequence of Events 6 → 7 → 9 → 10 forms the first set of causal links, showing the evolution of academies from grassroots development to state support. During the Five Dynasties and Ten Kingdoms period (Event 6), warfare limited the development of state-sponsored academies, while local officials’ funding facilitated the growth of private academies. The implementation of the system of educational land grants (学田制) (Event 7) further promoted the accessibility of academy education. The education and cultural policies of the Northern Song period (Event 9) increased the number of academies and established a comprehensive state-sponsored system in the late Northern Song (Event 10). Events 10 → 12 and 15 → 13 → 14 form the second set of causal relationships, describing the cultural and political influences on Southern Song academies. The state-sponsored academies and educational land grant system (Event 10) of the Northern Song, combined with scholarly discussions during the Southern Song (Event 12), provided economic and social support for the construction of academies (Event 13). However, the Qingyuan Party Proscription (庆元党禁) (Event 15) temporarily halted academy development until the promotion of Neo-Confucianism by Zhu Xi (Event 14) restored the status of Confucianism and revitalized academies. Events C → G → F and H → I represent a third set of causal links, revealing the rise and suppression of academies. While the founding of Wansong Academy (万松书院) (Event C) encouraged the exchange of diverse ideas, the dissemination of opinions at Donglin Academy (东林书院) (Event G) raised concerns about political stability, leading to the “Apocalypse of Destruction” (天启之毁) (Event F). Subsequently, the destruction by Zhang Zhongxian’s forces (Event H) and the Qing dynasty’s early suppression policies (Event I) further weakened academies amidst social turmoil. The sequences of Events D → K → J and M → O → P highlight the revival and transformation of Confucian thought within academies. The rise of the Yangming School of Mind (阳明心学) (Event D) challenged the dominance of Cheng-Zhu Neo-Confucianism (程朱理学), but official endorsement of Cheng-Zhu Neo-Confucianism in the early Qing (Event K) reaffirmed Confucian orthodoxy, promoting the institutionalization of academies through their integration with the imperial examination system (科举制). The critique of traditional education during the Taiping Rebellion (太平天国运动) (Event M) spurred educational reforms and paved the way for the Hundred Days’ Reform (戊戌变法) (Event O), leading to the transformation of academies into new-style schools (新式学堂). The abolition of the imperial examination system in 1905 (Event P) marked the end of the traditional academy system.

Events 4, 6, 8, and 10 demonstrate the first group of direct relationships, reflecting the progression from the formation of academies to the revival of cultural traditions. Starting with the book collection function of the Tang Dynasty Lizheng Academy (丽正书院) (event-4) and moving to the rise of private academies during the Five Dynasties and Ten Kingdoms (event-6), this period marks the functional transformation of educational buildings from state-run institutions to a blend of official and private management. Following the stabilization of the political turmoil in the early Northern Song (event-8), authorities promoted the revival of academies through the implementation of the system of educational land grants (学田制) (event-10). The second group of direct relationships is found among events 6, 12, 14, and 16, illustrating the connection between the evolution of academies and the development of Cheng-Zhu Neo-Confucianism (程朱理学). The emergence of early private academies (event-6) facilitated the expansion of popular education, while the integration of Neo-Confucianism with the educational system during the Southern Song (event-12) solidified the status of academies and Confucianism (event-14). Later, Cheng Duanli’s compilation of the ‘annual reading schedule’ (event-16) standardized the Neo-Confucian curriculum in academies, signifying the maturation of the educational system. The third group of direct relationships, comprising events A, B, C, and F, reveals the expansion of academy functions. The wall painting arts in Confucius temples (event-A) reinforced the ritualistic aspects of Confucianism, while the renovation of Bailudong Academy (白鹿洞书院) (event-B) further extended the sacrificial functions, as seen in the ‘ancestral temple on the left, school on the right (左庙右学)’ layout at Wansong Academy (万松书院) (event-C). As academics (event-F) became venues for political discourse, their functionality increasingly reflected political influence. The fourth group of direct relationships, among events I, L, N, M, and P, highlights the decline of academic education. During the early Qing Dynasty, official policies suppressing academies (event-I) forced some scholars and missionaries to shift their educational efforts overseas (event-L). Following the Opium War, Western missionary academies emerged in China (event-N). Subsequently, the Taiping Rebellion’s critique of traditional Confucianism (event-M) accelerated educational reforms. The abolition of the imperial examination system (科举制) (event-P) marked the rise of modern education.

Figures 8–9 illustrate the layers of influence on the development of academy architecture and the social-historical progression of events from the perspective of relational hermeneutics. In terms of the social progression dimension, before the Ming Dynasty, the development of academy architecture followed a primary trajectory driven by the continuation of the tomb ritual system and the dissemination of philosophy, with political influences playing a supplementary role. However, during the Ming and Qing periods, the cultural formation of academic architecture began to shift from an educational focus toward a stronger alignment with political agendas. Regarding the layers of influence on the development of academic architecture, historical events have consistently revolved around fluctuations in the status of Confucianism, reflecting how the ethicality and educational nature of Confucian thought have become integral to academy ritual culture. This integration is expressed through architectural functions, spatial layout, structural forms, and decorative arts. Prior to the Ming Dynasty, Confucian ideals predominantly influenced the functionality and decorative aspects of academy architecture, whereas, during the Ming and Qing periods, these influences were more evident in changes to functionality. Examples include the overlapping functions of lecture halls and ritual spaces (event-B), the addition of recreational facilities (event-E), and the expansion of modern schools (event-O), which collectively transformed the traditional layout of the “ancestral temple on the left, school on the right (左庙右学).” Overall, the development trajectory of academy architecture and its ritual culture is characterized by a primary path driven by the continuation of the tomb ritual system, alongside dual interfaces influenced by philosophy dissemination (before the Ming Dynasty) and Confucian politics (between the Ming and Qing Dynasties).

The thematic elements reflected in the subject matter of the stories convey a pro-educational nature, emphasizing motivational spirit (励志), self-cultivation (修身), and righteousness (正气)

Chinese academy architecture wall paintings commonly feature themes such as “study,” “etiquette (礼仪),” and “honor and shame (廉耻),” highlighting virtues and moral aspirations, thus embodying elements of Confucian ritual culture⁸². Among the 22 works analyzed, 17 are figure and scene paintings, with the majority depicting “historical allusion” (11), followed by “auspicious symbolism (吉祥寓意)” (4) and “legend and story (传说故事)” (4). Although only three works fall under the category of “aspiration for life (生活向往),” their themes often overlap, making them difficult to categorize definitively. The subject matter of the 22 works can be classified into five categories (Fig. 10): 1) Self-cultivation and character refinement (修身养性), typically depicting scenes related to contemplation and self-discipline under the Confucian moral framework; 2) Poetry and rituals (诗书礼仪), centered on Confucian classics and cultural transmission, emphasizing ritual standards and the transmission of learning; 3) Happiness and longevity (福禄长寿), expressing wishes for happiness, health, and longevity through harmonic symbolism or representations of flora and fauna; 4) Inspirational learning (学习励志), featuring historical figures known for their dedication to study and pursuit of ideals; 5) Integrity and moral purity (正气高洁), represented by plants such as orchids, plum blossoms, and bamboo, symbolizing noble character and moral integrity.

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Each bar reflects the number of murals on different topics. The white dot indicates the median of the bar, while the dotted line reflects the trend of the values.

The majority of the works (17) fall into the first three categories, indicating that academies focused not only on knowledge transmission and academic research but also emphasized moral education, character development, and practical living. Through the medium of wall painting arts, academies visualized Confucian ideals and aspirations, providing students with subtle moral guidance⁸³. Analyzing works categorized as historical allusions, Table 7 highlights 16 pieces (samples 1-10 are Guangdong Academy’s wall paintings, samples 10-16 are Shaanxi paintings) that predominantly convey themes of self-cultivation (修身), motivational spirit (励志), and righteousness (正气), depicting scenes such as drinking, poetry, and reclusion, illustrating the academy’s use of art to guide students in understanding and practicing Confucian ethics.

Samples 5-6 and 8-9 emphasize the concept of self-cultivation (修身) through distancing from worldly affairs, personal liberation, and poetry and rituals (诗书礼仪). The narrative scene in the work “Nine Elders Picture (九老图-1863)”⁸⁴ (Shu and Sheng, 2023) depicts the retreat of nine hermits, including Bai Juyi and Hu Gao, into the mountains during the late Tang period, symbolizing their resistance to a corrupt court and pursuit of a tranquil life. Although “Nine Elders of Xiangshan (九老图-1920)”⁸⁴ shares the same background, it differs significantly in technique due to the different contexts of creation. “Nine Elders of Xiangshan (香山九老-1920)” was painted during the Republic of China, a period advocating freedom and personal liberation. The artist used metaphorizing events with people (以人喻事) technique, depicting the figures with vivid and radiant features. In contrast, the ink painting style of “Seven Sages of the Bamboo Grove (竹林七贤-1863)”⁸⁵ presents the shaping of individual characters and emotions in a more reserved and subtle manner, recounting the story of seven Wei-Jin scholars, including Shan Tao, Xiang Xiu, and Liu Ling, who sought refuge in reclusion, symbolizing their defiance against political repression and longing for spiritual liberation. These three works resonate with the thematic essence of “Eight Immortals of the Wine Cup (饮中八仙-1863)”⁸⁶, all of which depict collective figures and harmonious scenes to represent the longing for freedom from societal constraints.

Guangdong academy’s wall painting presents multiple expressions of Confucian values and visual narrative strategies. Samples 1 and 10 utilize narrative techniques to convey the core values of Confucian ritual culture, serving as classic representations of Confucian moral education. These works are based on “The Analects of Confucius (论语)” and “Liji (礼记).” “Cultivating the Family through Poetry and Ritual (诗礼传家-1723)”⁸⁷ depicts the story of Confucius teaching his son Kong Li about poetry and etiquette, emphasizing that without learning the rites, one cannot be a proper person or show filial piety, while learning poetry cultivates interest and enthusiasm for life. “Poetry, Wine, Qin, and Chess (诗酒琴棋)”⁸⁸ portrays the talents of Sun Guangxian from the Song dynasty, with qin, chess, calligraphy, and painting symbolizing the refined lifestyle of aristocrats and scholars, thus conveying an ethos of detachment from worldly pursuits.

Samples 3 and 7 embody the motivational spirit of diligence and the pursuit of knowledge (求知). By depicting figures, clothing, and expressions, “Cultivating and Studying as a Woodcutter (樵夫耕读-1723)”⁸⁹ combines the unusual reading practices with the image of Zhu Maichen from the Western Han period, illustrating the lives of people balancing manual labor and study. The message aligns with the spirit conveyed in “Borrowing Light Through a Wall (凿壁借光)”⁹⁰ and “Hanging One’s Head from the Beam and Stabbing One’s Thigh with an Awl (悬梁刺股)”⁹¹, which suggest that diligent study is the path to official success. The expressive portrayal of the figures is comparable to the ancestral hall fresco “The Portrait of Wu Niang (五娘图)”⁹², emphasizing the virtuous qualities of labor and the pursuit of knowledge.

Samples 2 and 4 celebrate the virtues of righteousness (正气), employing historical allusions to convey values. The work “Knight-errant (江湖侠士-1723)”^30,34 is more direct and vivid in its depiction of righteous qualities compared to “Cultivating and Studying as a Woodcutter,” portraying heroic figures such as martial artists and bodyguards in the academy’s corridor, evoking a spirit of integrity and justice. In contrast, “Prosperity and Honor of the Orchid and Laurel (兰桂腾芳-1723)” employs symbolism, using orchid and laurel as metaphors for noble character and family prosperity. In Chinese tradition, the orchid represents purity, while the laurel signifies honor and wealth. The work also uses metaphor through objects (借物喻意) to express hopes for the future success of descendants, drawing from the story in “Dream of the Red Chamber (红楼梦)”⁹³, where Jia Lan and Jia Gui achieve academic success, restoring the family’s honor.

In contrast, the wall paintings of Shaanxi academies emphasize the symbolic construction of scholarly temperament and educational rituals. Sample 11 “Wandering and Seeking Inspiration for Verses (行吟觅句图)” and sample 12 “Teaching Under the Pine Tree (松下课子图)” continue the tradition of conveying Confucian cultural values through narrative depictions of human activities. The former portrays a literatus wandering among landscapes, immersed in contemplation and poetic inspiration. This reinforces the cultural ideal of intellectuals seeking spiritual solace and literary cultivation in nature. The latter depicts a senior scholar instructing students beneath a pine tree, visualizing the academy’s educational philosophy of reverence for teachers and the integration of moral cultivation with scholarship, thereby enhancing the academy’s didactic function and cultural atmosphere. Sample 13, “Wenchang’s Journey to the Capital for the Imperial Examination (文昌进京赶考图)”, centers on the deity Wenchang traveling to the capital to participate in the imperial examinations. This symbolizes the Confucian values of valuing literature and education, as well as aspirations for official success through academic merit. It reinforces the ideal of achieving social status through study and reflects the alignment between academy culture and temple murals in terms of educational objectives. Samples 14 and 15 express ideals of scholarly integrity and moral cultivation. “Portrait of the Five Elders (五老图)”⁹⁴ depicts five literati engaging in philosophical dialog, paying homage to the wisdom and virtue of elder scholars. “Playing Chess (弈棋图)”⁹⁵ employs a scene of a chess match between scholars to symbolize the cultivation of moral character through intellectual engagement, reflecting the Confucian pedagogy of rational contemplation and moral reasoning. Sample 16, “Birthday Tribute Ceremony (拜寿图)”⁹⁶, combines a birthday banquet scene with the presence of descendants paying homage, reinforcing the ethical symbolism of filial piety, family tradition, and lineage continuity. This exemplifies the Confucian emphasis on the reproduction and transmission of cultural values through ritual practice within clan spaces.

Table 8 analyzes the figures depicted in the paintings listed in Table 7 that convey a pro-educational nature, revealing the following observations. The portrayals predominantly feature male figures, while female representations are scarce (sample 1). The emotional expressions of the figures generally align with the depicted themes and narrative settings. In some cases, their demeanor and emotional states correspond with their professions and social status, reflecting a tendency toward realistic representation. For instance, Portrait of Ji Zha’s (季札) Travels (sample 7) illustrates a farewell scene between Ji Zha and his elders prior to his journey. The overall composition conveys an uplifting tone, expressing the anticipation of a safe departure and return. The characters display varied expressions: Ji Zha appears conflicted—both reluctant to leave and eager to embark on his travels. The elder is portrayed as stern, delivering moral counsel; the servant maintains a calm demeanor, while the woodcutter appears contemplative and weary. The figures’ posture and expressions reflect the occupational traits of their roles. Lower-class occupations are generally associated with neutral to negative emotions, forming a stark contrast with the relaxed and joyful portrayals of literati figures (samples 6–7 and 9). The woman in sample 1 is depicted with a neutral to slightly negative expression, while the knight-errant in sample 4 is characterized by a solemn and righteous presence. The woodcutters in samples 3 and 7 are portrayed as resigned to life’s hardships, yet still imbued with a sense of hopefulness.

Artistic style differences under pro-spirituality: composition, themes, and humanization

Compared to the character and scene-based works in Table 7, Table 9 features a more diverse range of techniques, including illustrations, birds and flowers, plants, and landscapes, which highlight stylistic differences under different thematic narratives while consistently emphasizing the pro-spirituality ideals pursued by scholarly families. These works are typically found in spaces like the academy’s corridors, wall eaves, and doorheads, fostering a spirit of humility, diligent study, and moral purity. The stylistic differences between the 18 works in Table 9 are as follows. In composition, figure and scene paintings usually have an aspect ratio greater than 2:1, emphasizing the relationships and interactions between multiple figures. In contrast, compositions of birds, plants, and landscapes are more compact, with an aspect ratio often less than 2:1. For example, the landscape painting in sample 23 has an aspect ratio of 1:1.625, close to the golden ratio, creating visual harmony. Figure paintings often use vertical compositions to highlight details and expressiveness, as seen in samples 3 and 4, where vertical layouts enhance the dynamics and expressions of the figures. In theme, Qing dynasty works mainly focus on Confucian ethics and self-cultivation, reflecting a strong moralizing intent, while 20th-century paintings increasingly incorporate secular emotions and artistic expression, indicating a shift from strict moral education to personal life and emotional representation. In color, early works frequently use pure, saturated colors like yellow, green, and blue, featuring bold contrasts and accentuated contours to enhance visual impact. Later works, however, adopt softer tones with lower saturation, emphasizing gradation and subtle color shifts to convey emotion and character traits.

Compared with PRÜCH’s⁹⁷ emphasis on the materiality of court painting, the educational function and spatial spirituality of academy architecture led wall painting art within such settings to focus more heavily on conveying pro-spirituality values. This value orientation is most apparent in the stylistic differences described above. Li et al.⁴ observed that murals with an aspect ratio greater than 2:1 almost invariably feature figures in non-standing postures. The seated postures depicted in Qing Dynasty academy murals closely resemble those identified by Li et al.⁴, typically characterized by one leg extended and the other bent, presented either frontally or in profile. Such postures can be seen in samples 17 and 20–22, whose themes are primarily centered on scholarly discourse. Similar formalized, seated postures are also present in sample 29 Illustration of Yu the Great Receiving the Mandate (大禹受命图-1803)⁹⁸ and sample 31 Farewell Banquet for the Departing Official (辞曹饯行图-1555)³⁵, which respectively depict the historical scenes of Yu the Great receiving his mandate and Guan Yu bidding farewell to Cao Cao. In both cases, upright sitting or ceremonial gestures in motion serve to reinforce Confucian ideals of loyalty, moral integrity, and responsible service, continuing the tradition of ritual-oriented body language in academy paintings. For instance, in sample 17 The Four Elders of Shangshan (商山四皓-1723)⁸⁴, the figures are portrayed in formal seated positions engaged in academic dialog, reflecting the internal ritual culture of academies and an atmosphere of reverence for teachers and tradition. In contrast, figures in early 20th-century works appear more relaxed, with reclining or semi-reclining postures becoming common. These individuals often exhibit casually bent knees and extended legs, in stark contrast to the more disciplined stances typical of Qing Dynasty representations, indicating a shift in the social ethos of the time. Moreover, sample 34 Auspicious Fishes and Nine Sons Offering Longevity (吉庆有鱼, 九子献寿图)⁹⁹ depicts lively, expressive children whose vibrant gestures break away from the solemn behavioral norms characteristic of traditional murals. This work emphasizes emotional spontaneity and everyday familial expression, signaling a transition in pro-spirituality values—from a ritual-centered framework toward one anchored in domestic ethics and familial affection.

Moreover, starting with samples 23-24 later works gradually transitioned from figurative depictions (samples 17-22) to styles emphasizing ink painting and landscape imagery. The brushwork in samples 23-27 became looser and more spontaneous, departing from strict figural representations and formal ritual scenes. Sample 27 “Eight Immortals of the Wine Cup (饮中八仙-1920)”⁸⁶ exemplifies this trend, with some figures’ knees depicted less precisely, indicating greater artistic freedom and content flexibility. This stylistic shift can be partly attributed to a transition from traditional academy painting’s emphasis on ritualistic education and poetry and rituals (诗书礼仪) toward more liberal and individualistic artistic forms. The color palette also evolved from traditional primary colors to more nuanced hues. Pure colors, such as the bold yellows and greens in samples 17, 20-22, contrast with blended colors used in later works. In ancient China, primary-colored garments often signified higher social status, while blended colors were associated with commoners¹⁰⁰. Therefore, clothing color was a marker of social hierarchy. Apart from sample 28 “Seven Sages of the Bamboo Grove (竹林七贤-1920),” the colors in samples 25-27 show a shift toward bright, low-saturation hues, reflecting a softer and more refined painting style. Sample 30, Portraits of Characters from Romance of the Three Kingdoms (三国演义人物图)¹⁰¹, continues the tradition of using highly saturated colors. The stark contrast in costume colors and detailed character depiction generates strong visual tension, reflecting not only the visual emphasis typical of narrative paintings but also the expressive function of color in representing individual character traits and collective sentiment in late Qing and early Republican era “heroic narratives.”In addition, Samples 32, Illustration of the Yellow Emperor Battling Chiyou (黄帝战蚩尤图)¹⁰², and Sample 33, Veneration of the Elderly (尊老图), further exemplify a tendency toward the juxtaposition and integration of stylistic features and value systems. While the former exhibits epic narrative characteristics, it employs vivid color and dynamic composition to express a symbolic appeal for national unity. The latter, by contrast, conveys reverence for familial ethics and intergenerational harmony through restrained brushwork and realistic scenes. This coexistence of artistic styles simultaneously reinforces national identity within grand historical narratives and highlights the internal logic of “family culture” embedded within pro-spirituality themes.

In fact, the pro-spirituality characteristics and artistic styles of academic architecture wall painting arts are closely related to the historical background in which the works were created. Before the establishment of the Tang Dynasty’s Lizheng Academy (丽正书院, the first academy in China)⁴⁹, traditional educational spaces were already integrated with ritual spaces, giving rise to the concept of the ‘Academy Confucius Temple’ (书院孔子庙)¹⁰³. The integration of ritual and educational space was prevalent at the time, influencing the layout and design of key structures at the Tang Dynasty’s Bailudong Academy (白鹿洞书院, 3,800m²), such as the Yushu Pavilion (御书阁), Minglun Hall (明伦堂), and Sixian Terrace (思贤台)⁶⁷. When Lizheng Academy was renamed Jixian Hall Academy (集贤殿书院), it signified a transition of academy architecture from a purely book-collecting function to a politically oriented space⁴⁹, introducing a hierarchical system of spatial decoration. With the introduction of the system of educational land grants (学田制)¹⁰⁴, the emergence of Family Academies (家族书院)¹⁰⁵, and the transformation of architecture in civilian-oriented schools that merged official and commercial interests¹², the public educational nature of academies became increasingly prominent. Meanwhile, the rise of private academies (私塾) also strengthened the kinship character of these institutions¹⁰⁵. These changes made the decoration and wall painting arts of academy architecture more relatable, ethical, and kinship-oriented. The Confucian ritual reforms proposed by the Song Dynasty statesman Zhu Xi¹⁰⁶ further enhanced the moral and didactic nature of early architectural paintings.

However, domestic and foreign crises, such as the Taiping Rebellion (太平天国运动)¹⁰⁷, the Opium Wars¹⁰⁸, and the signing of unequal treaties^109,110, intensified the themes of peace, longevity, and auspiciousness in the paintings of academy architecture. The themes and artistic styles presented in Samples 32–34 emerged as visual expressions shaped by the sociocultural context of the time. From heroic epics and family ethics to birthday celebrations and everyday life scenes, artists exercised greater freedom in mobilizing historical symbols and domestic imagery in their compositions. This gave rise to a multidimensional pro-spirituality visual system, reflecting a profound transition in academy painting—from collective ritual pedagogy toward individual ethics and a human-centered sensibility. The artwork “Fortune Comes from Heaven” (福自天来-1920) depicts a scene where a bat flies from afar, employing harmonic symbolism (谐音寓意) by overlapping the word ‘bat’ (蝙蝠) with ‘good fortune’ (福气), as both share the same pronunciation in Chinese. In Chinese culture, the bat symbolizes good fortune, and the artwork conveys a yearning for happiness and luck. Similarly, the piece “Auspicious Clouds and Good Fortune” (祥云瑞气-1920)³¹ expresses a longing for a peaceful life, subtly reflecting the contrast with the social realities of the time. The abolition of the imperial examination system (科举制) in 1905¹¹¹, the New Culture Movement’s critique of traditional Confucian rituals¹¹², and the establishment of new-style schools (新式学堂)¹¹³ collectively led to the diversification, inclusivity, and individual liberation of academy culture. The collapse of the feudal imperial system further liberated the use of colors in paintings from the constraints of traditional rituals. Consequently, artworks created after the 20th century began to advocate for humanistic values and reflect a growing emphasis on spiritual fulfillment¹¹⁴.

Table 10 analyzes the mural figures conveying pro-spirituality themes as listed in Table 9, and reveals the following findings: 1) Compared with paintings reflecting a pro-educational nature, those categorized as pro-spirituality demonstrate a higher degree of consistency between the characters’ expressions and the thematic implications. The depicted scenes predominantly involve scholarly dialog, teaching, ritual performance, knowledge-seeking, and prayer, with most figures portrayed through emotionally positive and spiritually engaged expressions; 2) The majority of figures are male and belong to higher professional classes (samples 17, 20-21, 27); 3) The figures consistently exhibit idealized traits; even farmers (sample 25) and ordinary individuals (sample 33) are depicted as embracing a hopeful outlook on life.